Issues in Second Language Learning Essay Example for Free

Issues in Second Language Learning Essay People today live in a â€Å"global village† – people correspond with each other from around the globe regularly through the Internet, modern transportation enables a person to travel from Africa to Europe in a matter of hours, products are bought and sold with increasing ease from all over the word, services are provided anytime, anywhere in the world, and real time coverage of major international news events is taken for granted. Thus, it seems that learning second language is a requirement in today’s highly globalised environment. However, second language learning (SLL) is a long and difficult process, and is a big task for anyone. After all, learning a first language is a process that involves much of a young child’s day, and ESL students in universities must work even harder in order to learn and acquire a second language. The learning process can be emotionally difficult for university students to take the step into a new language and culture. Adult learners, perhaps even more than children and adolescents, can be shy and embarrassed around others when trying out beginning language skills. Learners acquire a second language in many different ways. There are many similarities in how a second language is learned, but there are also differences based on individual student characteristics and language background. For example, outgoing students may begin to imitate phrases and expressions very early and try them without worrying about making mistakes. Conversely, other learners may not use their new language for some time. Usually, at the outset, learners may experience cultural shock as they are exposed to a new language, therefore, a whole new culture. This common experience, described as uprooting, is the abrupt transition from a familiar cultural milieu to an alien one. In the beginning of every SLL program, many learners experience a so-called honeymoon period, during which students are enchanted with the alien language without a true understanding of them. As time progresses, it is common for students to become almost hostile toward learning new language. Second language learners often suffer greater rates of anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic complaints. Furthermore, given the stresses SLL students face, a student struggling with language issues may lack the physical, emotional, or financial resources to tend to basic needs. After this stage, the learners are transitioned to so-called improved adjustment. In the last stage, the stage of bilingualism, the learners incorporate the norms of the language and culture that they have acquired and learned into their own lifestyle and their own value set. Cultural Issues Many students of SLL are struggling with learning a new language. These struggles stem above all from linguistic and cultural differences. Often, they experience the â€Å"language shock† phenomenon wherein learners confront anxiety when first entering a community in which they do not speak, or are not proficient in, the dominant language. It is a common occurrence in schools, where, despite their desire to speak the dominant language fluently, students must struggle for months or several years before they understand everything that is being said. This feeling of anxiety is aggravated by the ignorance of others. Consider the following example reported by Li (1999): When a Chinese mother went to pick up her daughter from school, she began to ask her some questions about her day, but in Chinese. The girl became upset with her mother and later explained that her classmates would laugh at her in those situations. Moreover, whenever the teacher in her school inquired as to who had made a particular mistake, one of her classmates would point to her and say, The Chinese girl, when it was usually not so. In addition to the language shock that occurs on entering a new environment, many students experience another kind of struggle. Because of the types of ordeal described above, second language learners have negative associations with speaking their native language. Yet when they go home, that is the language in which their parents communicate. Moreover, their parents insist that they too maintain the use of the native language as a connection to their homeland and heritage. But many second language learners, especially those who immigrated to English-speaking countries, associate proficiency and fluency in English with becoming American and so they want to give up their native language. These learners are caught in a battle: while at home, they are expected by their parents to speak their first language; at school they are pressured to speak the second language. Another important challenge that many second language learners face is understanding the curriculum and pedagogy used in the classroom. Western classrooms are largely Euro-centric and America-centric. Carger (1996) recounts the story of a Mexican American boy, who was a student in a predominantly Latino Catholic middle school in Chicago. While the teachers and administrators never openly stated that they believed their students were inferior, they treated them as if they were. The boy’s homeroom teacher often used a demeaning tone when she spoke to her students. She did not allow them to ask questions, nor did she encourage them to think on their own. Most of her assignments included content to which her students could not relate. For example, one task that the students were asked to complete was to describe the experience of going to the dentist. However, many of the students had never been to a dentist. Pedagogical Issues A major problem confronting learners is the failure of the teachers to appreciate different learning strategies and styles among SLL students. Increased interest in student-centred learning approaches amongst language educators has led to numerous studies investigating individual language learning strategies and their relationship to achievement in learning second/foreign languages. Studies have indicated support for appropriately applied language learning strategies on second/foreign language achievement (e. g. , Griffiths and Parr, 2001). The consensus of the research is that although all learners, regardless of success with language learning, consciously or unconsciously employ a variety of learning strategies; successful language learners engage in more purposeful language learning and use more language-learning strategies than do less successful ones. Overall, findings indicate that both the frequency with which learners apply language learning strategies and the strategies they choose are distinguishing characteristics between more successful and less successful learners. Learning strategies are strategies that contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and which affect learning directly. They are steps taken to facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information. In addition learning strategies are the special behaviours or thoughts that individuals use to help them learn, comprehend, or retain new information. Furthermore, it can be argued that learning strategies can foster learners’ autonomy in language learning. Strategies can also assist second language learners in promoting their own achievement in language proficiency. Learning strategies, therefore, not only help learners become efficient in learning and using a language, but also contribute to increasing learners’ self-directed learning. Whether as a result of heredity, educational background, situational requirements, age, or other factors, Sudanese learners of the English language understand and process information differently. While one individual prefers a particular learning style over another, such a preference reflects a personal inclination for how to learn in a particular situation. As personalities change, so too may their learning style preferences after exposure to different learning/teaching situations. Early research into language learning strategies was mostly concerned with investigating what language learning strategies learners used, without attempting to address the links between strategy use and success. Recent research has focused on determining the connections between strategy use and language proficiency. Such studies have shown that proficient language learners employed more strategies in language learning than less proficient language learners. Other findings have exposed a relationship between students’ perceptions of their language proficiency and strategy use. Oxford and Nyikos (1989) affirmed that greater strategy use accompanied perceptions of higher proficiency, while Wharton (2000) demonstrated a significant correlation between the two factors, indicating the higher a student’s language proficiency self-rating, the more frequent strategy use was. Long lists of learning strategies have been identified by a number of studies over the past thirty years Oxford (1993) reported that there were at least two dozen different classifications. Generally, these learning strategies fall under four broad categories, i. e. strategies that enable learners to: (1) comprehend, store, retrieve and use information; (2) manage and direct their learning through reflection and planning; (3) control their emotions; and (4) create opportunities to practice the target language with other people. Learning strategy system can be direct or indirect. Basically, direct learning strategies require mental processing of the target language. There are three major groups of direct strategies, each processes the language differently and for different purposes: memory, cognitive, and compensation. Memory learning strategies, also called mnemonics, involve mental processes used in arranging information in order, making associations, and reviewing. Cognitive learning strategies involve the processing of the target language so that meaning becomes clear through processes like reasoning and analyzing. Lastly, compensation learning strategies enable second language learners to make up for gaps in their knowledge and skills, by, for example, guessing meanings and using gestures. On the other hand, indirect strategies support and manage language learning often without involving the target language directly. The metacognitive, affective, and social learning strategies belong to the groups of indirect learning strategies. In essence, metacognitive learning strategies enable second language learners to plan, coordinate, evaluate, and direct their own learning as well as to monitor errors. Affective learning strategies, on the other hand, help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivation through self-encouragement, self-reward, and reduction of anxieties. Finally, social learning strategies are ways of involving other people in enhancing learning through questions, cooperation and increased cultural awareness. Another pedagogical issue is that many SLL teachers do not generate environment that will foster learners’ understanding of making the essential mental construction. The current research proposes that students need to construct their own understanding of their learning. Constructivism provides a way of understanding teaching and learning and offers information for developing various ways of teaching, because the challenge in teaching is not to lecture, explain, or otherwise to attempt to transfer knowledge, but to create circumstances and experiences that engage the students and support their own explanation and application of language models needed to make sense of these experiences. The focus of constructivism is not unique to psychology; it also has roots in several areas, such as linguistics. Constructivism is primarily a theory of human development that in recent years has been applied to learning. The learning or meaning-making theory proposes that people create their own meaning and understanding, combining what they already know and believe to be true with new experiences with which they are confronted. The theory views knowledge as temporary, developmental, social and cultural. Lambert et al. (1995) described constructivism as the primary basis of learning where individuals bring past experiences and beliefs, as well as their cultural histories and world views, into the process of learning; all of these influence how we interact with and interpret our encounters with new ideas and events (p.xii). Guided by theories of constructivism, teachers must recognize that: learning is a search for meaning; meaning requires an understanding of the whole as well as its parts; in seeking meaning, they must understand the mental representations that students use to interpret the world and the assumptions they make to strengthen those representations; and the goal of learning is for the SLL student to develop his or her own understanding. Hence the students’ cultural-social and historical contexts are of importance in their learning. Social constructivist concepts have important implications in teaching strategies. Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human interactivity. Members of a society together construct the properties of the world. For them, reality does not exist prior to its social invention, thus it cannot be discovered. Also, social constructivism holds that knowledge is also a human product and is socially and culturally constructed, which suggests that individuals establish meaning by interacting with each other and with their environment. Additionally, social constructivism proposes that learning does not occur only within an individual, but is a social process; meaningful learning among SLL students happens when they are involved in social activities. Teachers can design instructional models based on the social constructivist perspective. These models promote collaboration among learners and with practitioners in the society. According to Lave and Wenger (1991) a society’s practical knowledge is positioned in relations among practitioners, their practice and the social organization and political economy of communities of practice. This suggests that learning should involve such knowledge and practice.

William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew Essay examples -- Shakes

William Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew Over the past 400 or so years since Shakespeare wrote _The Taming of the Shrew_, many writers, painters, musicians and directors have adapted and reformed this play of control and subjugation into timeless pieces of art. In _10 Things I Hate About You_ and Kiss Me Kate from two very different times in the twentieth century, and paintings of Katherina and Bianca from the late nineteenth century, the creators of these adaptations have chosen to focus on the role of the two main female characters in the play. The ideas surrounding these women have changed through the years, from Katherina and Bianca simply being young women who deviated from the norm of Shakespeare’s time to women who embody feminist ideals and stereotypes of the more modern world. From the beginning of the play, the differences between Katherina and Bianca are highlighted through their interactions via dialogue. Early in the second act, Bianca pleads with her sister to not â€Å"make a bondmaid and a slave of me† because, as deemed by society, Bianca is not supposed to marry before her older sister (2.1.2). Bianca asks Katherina to â€Å"unbind [her] hands† so that she can get rid of all the gawdy implements she is forced to wear as a polite woman of the time, because if she doesn’t want to follow one rule, she doesn’t see why she should follow any of them (2.1.4). This immediately sets up these two sisters by showing how one depends on the status of the other to be truly happy, or happy as deemed by the doctrines of society anyway. Katherina rebuts this whining after their father enters, and ends the scene with her own speech in which she argues that Nay, now I see She is your treasure, she must have a husband; I mus... ... About You_.† Shakespeare Bulletin: A Journal of Performance Criticism and Scholarship 22.2 (2004): 45-66. Expanded Academic ASAP. Westfield State College Library, MA. 15 April 2005. 15 April 2005. Ostlere, Hilary. â€Å"Taming The Musical.† Dance Magazine 73.12 (1999): 84. Expanded Academic ASAP. Westfield State College Library, MA. 15 April 2005. Schneider, Gary. â€Å"The Public, the Private, and the Shaming of the Shrew.† SEL Studies in English Literature 1500-1900 42.2 (2002): 235-258. Project Muse. Westfield State College Library, MA. 15 April 2005. Schuler, Robert M. â€Å"Bewitching The Shrew.† Texas Studies in Literature and Language 46.4 (2004): 387-431. Project Muse. Westfield State College Library, MA. 15 April 2005. Shakespeare, William. _The Taming of the Shrew_. The Riverside Shakespeare. 2nd ed. Ed. Dean Johnson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997. 142-171.

Goal Setting Theory

Research conducted in this field has indicated that there is a positive relationship between goal setting and performance outputs. The prime principles of the goal setting theory state that successful goal setting needs to be assessed on five dimensions: goal clarity, goal challenge, goal commitment, performance feedback, and task complexity. The insights Of the empirical studies discussed in this paper imply that when goal setting is done correctly and thoroughly throughout each stage, it leads to a significant increase in motivation.Various methods and strategies have been developed to complement the goal setting theory, an example being, the popular mnemonic acronym S. M. A. R. T. Which uses the words specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely to aid in eating effective goals. Goal setting theory is both measurable and quantifiable. Empirical evidence from both experimental and field settings have supported that the benefits (increase in employee performance, increase in employee motivation, increase in profits, etc. ) far outweigh the drawbacks (results from application error, organization costs, human resource efforts).Based off current research output and the abundance of research still conducted and revised on this theory, it can be concluded that the goal setting theory is an effective theory of motivation and, moving forward, will be a leader in workplace motivation in North America. INTRODUCTION According to Callus's employee study, workplace disengagement is an alarming issue around the world. In North America, the region with the highest ratio of engaged workers compared to the rest of the world, the proportion of engaged workers is only 29% (Gallup, 2011).In other words, the vast majority of workers are not reaching their full potential. This has significant implications to the economy, companies, and individuals. With the great deal of emphasis on productivity in today's marketplace, managers within organizations are constantly search ing for effective strategies in motivating staff to achieving organizational goals. The theory of motivation discussed in this paper will be the goal-setting theory, which is arguably one of the most dominant theories in the field of motivation with over a thousand articles and reviews published within the last 30 to 40 years (Lethal, 2006).The objective of this paper is to produce a summary and evaluation Of the goal setting theory of motivation. The paper will be divided into two sections. The first section will discuss the foundation of the theory along with its main tenets. The second section will provide real life examples of the theory application and critically examine the applicability of the theory in the North American managerial workplace supported by empirical work. FOUNDATION OF THEORY The foundation of the goal setting theory was first developed and refined by the American psychologist, Edwin Locke, in the 1 sass.Locke was inspired by the final cause in Arteriole's the ory of causality, which states â€Å"that for the sake of which† or can be defined as the end or purpose of something. Stemming from Aristotle theory, Locke continued to research on goal setting for thirty years. With the contribution of Locke and other scientists, this theory has now been popularized and become one of the most widely used horses regarding motivation. During Locker's primary research, he studied the relationship between goal setting variables and task performance.There were two major sets of initial studies conducted – the difficulty of the goal (difficult versus easy), and the specificity of the goal (specific versus vague) goals. He concluded that difficult goals led to higher performance than easy goals, given that the difficulty was within an attainable limit. His second conclusion was that specific goals were more effective than vague ones (Locke, 1968). Following Locker's study, Gary Lathe's research established animal conclusions in his workplac e – there was indeed a link between goal setting and workplace performance.Together, in 1990, they published their seminal work in a book called â€Å"A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance† (Locke & Lethal, 1990). Along with the two original characteristics of successful goal setting, three additional characteristics have been identified as crucial. The goal setting theory is now guided by five principles: goal clarity, goal challenge, goal commitment, performance feedback, and task complexity. The following paragraphs will briefly discuss each of the five principles and the supporting research.TENETS OF THE THEORY Research indicates that clear goals can reduce absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover, which all aid in increasing organizational productivity (Locke & Lethal, 2002). A clear goal is defined as being specific and measurable. As Locke mentions in his paper, when the goal is specific and measurable, it provides an external reference such as a time frame, which reduces overall ambiguity (Locke & Lethal, 2002). In six of the eight studies that Locke conducted, the level of performance was significantly higher in the group that was given a specific goal compared to the group that was given a vague goal.An example of a specific goal would be to â€Å"complete X amount in Y time† and a vague goal would be to â€Å"do your best†. Another primary issue researched on goal setting was the goal challenge or difficulty. In a meta-analysis of goal setting studies, easy goals were defined as those with greater than 50% probability of attainment and moderate goals being 16%-D% probability of attainment (Klein et al. , 1999). When participants were given these two types of goals, data indicated that, harder goals resulted in higher levels of performance (Klein et al. , 1999).Optimally, a goal should not be too difficult o a point where it is unattainable and motivation suffers (Bennett, 2009). However, overall on average, the perfor mance level in individuals with higher goals was still significantly higher than those with very easy goals (Klein et al. , 1999). This can be explained by the idea that high goals lead to high performance, which is associated with rewards, and rewards often result in high satisfaction. In other words, individuals are motivated by more difficult goals because of the anticipated accomplishment involved (Locke & Lethal, 2002).Goal commitment has been said to be a secondary characteristic cause it interacts with goal difficulty to produce performance. It has been found that commitment is crucial for difficult goals, but does not necessarily result in high performance when given an easy goal (Klein et al. , 1999). In a review of the literature, on average across all goal difficulty, it has been concluded that the higher the level of goal commitment, the higher the level of performance output (Klein et al. , 1999). Commitment to a goal can be increased when the goal is individually set o r when the individual agrees to the assigned goal.In environments with high group cohesion, goal ointment of individuals is also found to be high because of the strong influence of group norms (Locke & Lethal, 1991). Furthermore, self-efficacy is also a topic often discussed when relating to goal setting. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's judgment of their own ability to perform particular activities given their level of skill and ability (Bandeau, 1986). As this is a topic in and of itself, it is important to just note here that self-efficacy plays an important role in goal commitment.A higher level of self-efficacy in relation to goal attainment (I. E. If the individuals believes he can achieve the goal) exults in a higher level of goal commitment (Lethal & Locke 1991). Performance feedback is necessary for goal setting to be effective because it helps individuals gauge how well they are doing and the adjustments required for improvement. It has been found that when people k now they are below their target, they are most likely to increase their effort or devise a new strategy (Lethal & Locke, 1991 Feedback can be provided both during the process of achieving the goal or after the outcome.Additionally, feedback is also linked to increasing self-efficacy, which in turn leads to a higher performance (Lethal & Locke, 1991). Finally, in 1 996, Lethal examined the relationship between complex goals and performance levels. It was found that complex goals result in higher learning within individuals and thus led to a higher performance when compared to less complex goals. This can be explained by the idea that performance is not always achieved because of effort and persistence, but rather due to the cognitive understanding of the task and the development of various methods in solving the complex task (Lethal & Locke, 1991).Although this condition has to be addressed with care, complex tasks have been found to have an overall positive effect on reference level s (Lethal, 1996). THEORY IN ACTION The history of workplace motivation was initially driven by the belief that money was the primary source for employee motivation, but it was later found that various factors are motivators in determining workplace satisfaction, which is a predictor of job performance (Lethal, 2006).In the following decades, it will be crucial for leadership around the world to address the issue of workplace disengagement. In an organization, managers do not have the time and resources to constantly keep track of an employee's work or motivation. Most organizations use some form of goal setting in operation. Setting goals implies that there is a need or desire to attain a certain object or outcome (Locke & Lethal 2006). In essence, goals tell employees what needs to be accomplished and how much effort should be exerted.In the North American workplace, the direction of the goal setting theory appears to be an effective strategy in motivating staff to meeting organiza tional goals; this explains the abundant amount of evidence in us port of the theory and the various strategies constantly being developed. Based off of goal setting theory by Locke and Lethal, a popular mnemonic acronym developed for effective goal setting is S. M. A. R. T by George Doran. The outlined criteria for S. M. A. R. T. Goal setting states that goals should be specific, measurable, assignable, realistic, and time-bound.There have been other variations of S. M. A. R. T. That are also interchangeable such as using â€Å"achievable† and â€Å"relevant† instead of â€Å"assignable† and â€Å"realistic†, respectively. These goal-setting criteria can all be linked back to the five principles summarized by Locke and Lethal and is a popular management strategy used in the workforce. The implications of new strategies and discoveries suggest that goal setting is not an innate attribute that individuals are born tit. It a skill that can be taught, learnt , and practiced.The resources required by an organization to train its employees on successful goal setting is practical and the return can be significant. Large organizations such as General Electric (GE) and Federal Express Company (Faded) have also implemented this theory in their organizations. GE applies goal setting theory in all levels of the organization and refers to goal setting as a key ingredient of their success. After a trial run, Faded found that employees had greater accountability, clearer expectations, and more precise feedback towards their jobs. The initiative was then executed throughout other departments in the organization.In Locke and Lathe's report, they found truck drivers saved the company $250,000 in 9 months when the logs loaded on the trucks were increased as a result of upping the assigned goals (Locke & Lethal, 2002). In 1967, it was found that, United Fund communities that set monetary goals higher than the previous year's performance raised more mon ey than communities that set goals lower than their previous years performance. More recent studies show, negotiators who have clear, challenging, and complex goals achieve higher profits than those with no goals (Locke &Lethal, 2002) and telecommunication employees that set specific high goals had higher job satisfaction and high performance (Locke & Lethal 2002). These are just a few empirical examples of successful goal setting evidence in this field. The goal setting theory is especially prominent in individualistic cultures such as North America. This can be explained by the notion that goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that helps individuals prioritize tasks; also why managers widely accept goal setting as a means to improve and sustain performance (Dublin, 2012).The insights to all he studies show that when goal setting is done correctly and thoroughly throughout each stage, it significantly increases motivation, which is then associated with n umerous other positive outcomes such as an increase in job satisfaction, an increase in organizational commitment, an increase in performance, and more (Locke & Lethal, 2002). Aside from the countless examples of goal setting successes, there are still some limitations and weaknesses of the theory. The goal setting theory cannot be applied in segments and because of that, the outcomes of the set goals can be different than the initial intent.For instance, if a goal is not clear (I. E. It does not address the specific and measurable outcome), it is easy for the individual to lose track of the goal and the goal may never be achieved. Another consequence of the goal being unclear, the performance feedback aspect of the goal can be difficult to execute because there is no measurable component and it will be challenging to determine the adjustments required. On the other hand, if the goal encompasses all five principles, but is too difficult, the individual will not be able to achieve it regardless. It may even result in a hindrance in motivation and performance.Apart from the error in application, some other weaknesses include: individuals setting too many goals and not being able to follow through, individuals concentrating on only one goal and losing sight of the others resulting in tunnel vision, and individuals focusing too much attention on the outcome and forgetting about the process (Lethal, 2004). There are various extensions of the goal setting theory that are beyond the scope of this paper. Advances in the research are currently leaning towards studying how other goal setting variables such as learning goals, goal framing, and subconscious goals, interact with reference (Lethal, 2004).

Generalization and Exception, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Free Essay Example, 1750 words

1. A robin is a bird. A bird is an animal with wings and feathers. Therefore a robin is an animal with wings and feathers. This is deductive reasoning as the researcher moves from the general observation of having the robin as a bird to an animal with wings and feathers. 1. A robin is a bird. A bird is an animal with wings and feathers. Therefore a robin is an animal with wings and feathers. This is deductive reasoning as the researcher moves from the general observation of having the robin as a bird to an animal with wings and feathers. 2. All the houses I have seen on Martino Street are box-shaped. Therefore I can say, All houses on Martino Street are box-shaped. This is inductive fallacy since researcher concludes that all houses on Martino Street are box-shaped since he had some them being box-shape. 3. The Quintinilla family just moved here from El Salvador. All the Salvadorans I know are really good cooks. Therefore the Quintinilla family must be really good cooks. This is deductive reasoning since the researcher moves form the general observation of all Salvadorans being good cooks to this family becoming good cooks. 4.We will write a custom essay sample on Generalization and Exception, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page My mother always gets upset over inconsequential issues. Therefore women are over-sensitive and emotional. This is inductive reasoning since the person moves from seeing his mother being upset over inconsequential issues to concluding that all women are over-sensitive. 7. Many students got sick after the class party. The outbreak of food poisoning was probably caused by the potato salad. This is deductive reasoning as the person moves from the general information of students getting sick to concluding that the sickness was caused by the potato salad.